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S U M M A R Y


DIARY: September 24, 2004 09:49 AM Friday; Rod Welch

Grammar use of comma for lists, "and," and separating clauses.

1...Summary/Objective
...............Guide To Grammar and Punctuation (With 20 Resources To
...............Help You Hone Your Skill)
....................Guide to Grammar & Writing
....1...Use a comma to separate the elements in a series (three or
....2...Use a comma + a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet,
....3...Use a comma to set off introductory elements, as in "Running
....4...Use a comma to set off parenthetical elements, as in "The
....5...Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. You could think
....6...Use a comma to set off quoted elements. Because we don't use
....7...Use commas to set off phrases that express contrast.
....8...Use a comma to avoid confusion. This is often a matter of
....9...Grammar English's Famous Rule of Punctuation: Never use only
...10...Typographical Reasons: Between a city and a state [Hartford,
...11...As you can see, there are many reasons for using commas, and
2...Clauses occur in many varieties separated by commas, explained at...
3...Independent Clause is explained...
4...Independent Clauses
5...Subordination
6...Semicolons...
7...Dependent Cluase
8...Combinations of Clauses
9...Elliptical Clauses


..............
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SUBJECTS
Comma Grammar Usage for Lists And Education                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
Writing Training, Research                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
Comma Grammar Usage for Lists And Education                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
0605 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
0605 -    ..
0606 - Summary/Objective                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
0607 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
060701 - Follow up ref SDS 5 RH7J, ref SDS 4 JP6M.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060702 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060703 - POIMS explains alphabet technology augments intelligence with a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060704 - process of thinking through writing to discover knowledge by                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
060705 - struggling with the formal structure of literacy. ref OF 1 21G6                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060707 -  ..
060708 - On 940609 the concept of thinking through writing was reviewed in                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060709 - relation to culture driven by pictures and dialog. ref SDS 2 0001                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
060711 -  ..
060712 - The "locality principal" develops the power of knowledge measured by                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060713 - energy released from connecting cause and effect that controls the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060714 - future, cited in NWO. ref OF 2 I38N                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
060716 -  ..
060717 - About 5,000 years ago, humans began the long struggle to harness the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060718 - power of knowledge through the magic of alphabet technology, cited on                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060719 - 940609, reviewing Henry Kissinger's book "The Power of Diplomacy."                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060720 - ref SDS 2 8854  The practice of "analysis" through "stories,"                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060721 - ref SDS 2 QX7O, connected across time into "history," was previously                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
060722 - cited on 890523  The flexible structure of writing applies the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060723 - predictive power of "knowledge" for understanding causation,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
060724 - ref SDS 2 50FV, and further drives the design of SDS support for                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060725 - intelligence, as set out in POIMS. ref OF 1 2160  SDS provides a new                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
060726 - way working with the flexible structure of alphabet technology by                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060727 - adding linear nodes, time, and context to traditional punctuation for                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060728 - granular control of history. ref SDS 1 TP8O                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060730 -  ..
060731 - The struggle with formal structures to write illuminates complexity by                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060732 - carefully crafting meaning to understand nuance using, for example, 11                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060733 - rules on commas.  There are many more rules of grammar for using                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060734 - semicolons, colons and periods to indentity many types of dependent                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060735 - and independent clauses. ref SDS 0 HF86                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
060736 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060737 -               Guide To Grammar and Punctuation (With 20 Resources To                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060738 -               Help You Hone Your Skill)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
060740 -  ..
060741 - Open Colleges Internet resource provides excellent support to advance                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060742 - basic writing skills...                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
060743 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060744 -              http://www.opencolleges.edu.au/informed/teacher-resources/guide-to-grammar-and-punctuation/                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
060746 -  ..
060747 - Received ref DRT 1 0001 from Gary submitting authority today on using                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
060748 - commas to construct lists in sentences, which he has helped correct                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060749 - in foundational documents the past few months.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060751 -  ..
060752 - This research provides more examples of writing clear, concise                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060753 - sentences that supplement research on writing and grammar reported on                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060754 - 001108. ref SDS 3 0001                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
060756 -  ..
060757 - The general site offers...                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
060758 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060759 -                    Guide to Grammar & Writing                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060760 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060761 -       http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
060763 -  ..
060764 - Research at...                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060765 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060766 -       http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/commas.htm                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
060767 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060768 - ...supplements research on 001108, ref SDS 3 WS6K, and says in                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060769 - part....
060770 -         ..
060771 -    1.  Use a comma to separate the elements in a series (three or                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060772 -        more things), including the last two. "He hit the ball,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060773 -        dropped the bat, and ran to first base." You may have learned                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060774 -        that the comma before the "and" is unnecessary, which is fine                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060775 -        if you're in control of things. However, there are situations                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060776 -        when, if you don't use this comma (especially when the list is                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060777 -        complex or lengthy), these last two items in the list will try                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060778 -        to glom together (like macaroni and cheese). Using a comma                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060779 -        between all the items in a series, including the last two,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060780 -        avoids this problem.  This last comma-the one between the word                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060781 -        "and" and the preceding word-is often called the serial comma                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060782 -        or the Oxford comma. In newspaper writing, incidentally, you                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060783 -        will seldom find a serial comma, but that is not necessarily a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060784 -        sign that it should be omitted in academic prose.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
060786 -         ..
060787 -    2.  Use a comma + a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060788 -        or, so) to connect two independent clauses, as in "He hit the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060789 -        ball well, but he ran toward third base."                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060791 -  ..
060792 - Clauses are further explained below. ref SDS 0 HF86                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060794 -  ..
060795 - Contending that the coordinating conjunction is adequate separation,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060796 - some writers will leave out the comma in a sentence with short,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060797 - balanced independent clauses (such as we see in the example just                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060798 - given). If there is ever any doubt, however, use the comma, as it is                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060799 - always correct in this situation.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060801 -  ..
060802 - One of the most frequent errors in comma usage is the placement of a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060803 - comma after a coordinating conjunction. We cannot say that the comma                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060804 - will always come before the conjunction and never after, but it would                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060805 - be a rare event, indeed, that we need to follow a coordinating                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060806 - conjunction with a comma. When speaking, we do sometimes pause after                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060807 - the little conjunction, but there is seldom a good reason to put a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060808 - comma there                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
060810 -         ..
060811 -    3.  Use a comma to set off introductory elements, as in "Running                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060812 -        toward third base, he suddenly realized how stupid he looked."                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060814 -         ..
060815 -        It is permissible to omit the comma after a brief introductory                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060816 -        element if the omission does not result in confusion or                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060817 -        hesitancy in reading. If there is ever any doubt, use the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060818 -        comma, as it is always correct. If you would like some                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
060819 -        additional guidelines on using a comma after introductory                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060820 -        elements, click HERE.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
060822 -         ..
060823 -    4.  Use a comma to set off parenthetical elements, as in "The                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060824 -        Founders Bridge, which spans the Connecticut River, is falling                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060825 -        down." By "parenthetical element," we mean a part of a sentence                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060826 -        that can be removed without changing the essential meaning of                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060827 -        that sentence. The parenthetical element is sometimes called                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060828 -        "added information." This is the most difficult rule in                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060829 -        punctuation because it is sometimes unclear what is "added" or                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060830 -        "parenthetical" and what is essential to the meaning of a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060831 -        sentence                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060833 -  ..
060834 - Appositives are almost always treated as parenthetical elements.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060835 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060836 -    Calhoun's ambition, to become a goalie in professional soccer, is                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060837 -    within his reach.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060839 -     ..
060840 -    Eleanor, his wife of thirty years, suddenly decided to open                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060841 -    her own business.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060842 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060844 -  ..
060845 - Sometimes the appositive and the word it identifies are so closely                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060846 - related that the comma can be omitted, as in "His wife Eleanor                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060847 - suddenly decided to open her own business." We could argue that the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060848 - name "Eleanor" is not essential to the meaning of the sentence                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060849 - (assuming he has only one wife), and that would suggest that we can                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060850 - put commas both before and after the name (and that would, indeed, be                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060851 - correct). But "his wife" and "Eleanor" are so close that we can regard                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060852 - the entire phrase as one unit and leave out the commas. With the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060853 - phrase turned around, however, we have a more definite parenthetical                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060854 - element and the commas are necessary: "Eleanor, his wife, suddenly                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060855 - decided to open her own business." Consider, also, the difference                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060856 - between "College President Ira Rubenzahl voted to rescind the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
060857 - withdrawal policy" (in which we need the name "Ira Rubenzahl" or the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060858 - sentence doesn't make sense) and "Ira Rubenzahl, the college                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
060859 - president, voted to rescind the withdrawal policy" (in which the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060860 - sentence makes sense without his title, the appositive, and we treat                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060861 - the appositive as a parenthetical element, with a pair of commas).                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060863 -  ..
060864 - As pointed out above (Rule #3), ref SDS 0 IL5G, an adverbial clause                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060865 - that begins a sentence is set off with a comma:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060866 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060867 -    Although Queasybreath had spent several years in Antarctica, he                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060868 -    still bundled up warmly in the brisk autumns of Ohio.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
060870 -     ..
060871 -    Because Tashonda had learned to study by herself, she was able to                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060872 -    pass the entrance exam.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
060874 -  ..
060875 - When an adverbial clause comes later on in the sentence, however, the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060876 - writer must determine if the clause is essential to the meaning of the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060877 - sentence or not. A "because clause" can be particularly troublesome in                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060878 - this regard. In most sentences, a "because clause" is essential to the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060879 - meaning of the sentence, and it will not be set off with a comma:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060880 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060881 -    The Okies had to leave their farms in the midwest because the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060882 -    drought conditions had ruined their farms.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
060884 -  ..
060885 - Sometimes, though, the "because clause" must be set off with a comma                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060886 - to avoid misreading:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060887 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060888 -    I knew that President Nixon would resign that morning, because my                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060889 -    sister-in-law worked in the White House and she called me with the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060890 -    news.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
060892 -  ..
060893 - Without that comma, the sentence says that Nixon's resignation was the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060894 - fault of my sister-in-law. Nixon did not resign because my                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
060895 - sister-in-law worked in the White House, so we set off that clause to                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060896 - make the meaning clearly parenthetical.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
060898 -  ..
060899 - When a parenthetical element - an interjection, adverbial modifier, or                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060900 - even an adverbial clause - follows a coordinating conjunction used to                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060901 - connect two independent clauses, we do not put a comma in front of the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060902 - parenthetical element.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060903 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060904 -    The Red Sox were leading the league at the end of May, but of                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060905 -    course, they always do well in the spring. [no comma after "but"]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060907 -     ..
060908 -    The Yankees didn't do so well in the early going, but frankly,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060909 -    everyone expects them to win the season. [no comma after "but"]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060911 -     ..
060912 -    The Tigers spent much of the season at the bottom of the league,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060913 -    and even though they picked up several promising rookies, they                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060914 -    expect to be there again next year. [no comma after "and"]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
060915 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060917 -  ..
060918 - (This last piece of advice relies on the authority of William Strunk's                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060919 - Elements of Style. Examples our own.)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060921 -  ..
060922 - When both a city's name and that city's state or country's name are                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060923 - mentioned together, the state or country's name is treated as a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060924 - parenthetical element.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060925 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060926 -    We visited Hartford, Connecticut, last summer. Paris, France, is                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060927 -    sometimes called "The City of Lights."                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
060929 -  ..
060930 - When the state becomes a possessive form, this rule is no longer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060931 - followed:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
060932 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060933 -    Hartford, Connecticut's investment in the insurance industry is                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060934 -    well known.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060936 -  ..
060937 - Also, when the state or country's name becomes part of a compound                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060938 - structure, the second comma is dropped:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
060939 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060940 -    Heublein, a Hartford, Connecticut-based company, is moving to                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060941 -    another state.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060942 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060944 -         ..
060945 -    5.  Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. You could think                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060946 -        of this as "That tall, distinguished, good looking fellow" rule                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060947 -        (as opposed to "the little old lady"). If you can put an and or                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060948 -        a but between the adjectives, a comma will probably belong                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060949 -        there. For instance, you could say, "He is a tall and                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
060950 -        distinguished fellow" or "I live in a very old and run-down                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060951 -        house." So you would write, "He is a tall, distinguished man"                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060952 -        and "I live in a very old, run-down house." But you would                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060953 -        probably not say, "She is a little and old lady," or "I live in                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060954 -        a little and purple house," so commas would not appear between                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060955 -        little and old or between little and purple.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060957 -         ..
060958 -    6.  Use a comma to set off quoted elements. Because we don't use                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060959 -        quoted material all the time, even when writing, this is                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060960 -        probably the most difficult rule to remember in comma usage.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060961 -        It is a good idea to find a page from an article that uses                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060962 -        several quotations, photocopy that page, and keep it in front                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060963 -        of you as a model when you're writing. Generally, use a comma                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060964 -        to separate quoted material from the rest of the sentence that                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060965 -        explains or introduces the quotation:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
060966 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060967 -            Summing up this argument, Peter Coveney writes, "The                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060968 -            purpose and strength of the romantic image of the child had                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060969 -            been above all to establish a relation between childhood                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060970 -            and adult consciousness."                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
060972 -         ..
060973 -        If an attribution of a quoted element comes in the middle of                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060974 -        the quotation, two commas will be required. But be careful not                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060975 -        to create a comma splice in so doing.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
060976 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060977 -            "The question is," said Alice, "whether you can make words                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060978 -            mean so many things."                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
060980 -             ..
060981 -            "I should like to buy an egg, please," she said timidly.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060982 -            "How do you sell them?"                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
060984 -         ..
060985 -        Be careful not to use commas to set off quoted elements                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060986 -        introduced by the word that or quoted elements that are                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060987 -        embedded in a larger structure:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
060988 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060989 -            Peter Coveney writes that "[t]he purpose and strength of                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
060990 -            ..."                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
060992 -             ..
060993 -            We often say "Sorry" when we don't really mean it.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
060995 -         ..
060996 -        And, instead of a comma, use a colon to set off explanatory or                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
060997 -        introductory language from a quoted element that is either                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
060998 -        very formal or long (especially if it's longer than one                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
060999 -        sentence):                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061000 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061001 -            Peter Coveney had this to say about the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061002 -            nineteenth-century's use of children in fiction: "The                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061003 -            purpose and strength of . . . . "                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
061004 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061006 -         ..
061007 -    7.  Use commas to set off phrases that express contrast.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
061008 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061009 -            Some say the world will end in ice, not fire.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
061010 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061011 -            It was her money, not her charm or personality, that first                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061012 -            attracted him.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
061014 -             ..
061015 -            The puppies were cute, but very messy.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061016 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061017 - (Some writers will leave out the comma that sets off a contrasting                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061018 - phrase beginning with but.)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
061020 -         ..
061021 -    8.  Use a comma to avoid confusion. This is often a matter of                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061022 -        consistently applying rule #3.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061023 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061024 -            For most the year is already finished.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061026 -             ..
061027 -            For most, the year is already finished.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061029 -             ..
061030 -            Outside the lawn was cluttered with hundreds of broken                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061031 -            branches.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061033 -             ..
061034 -            Outside, the lawn was cluttered with hundreds of broken                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061035 -            branches.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061037 -         ..
061038 -        Have spent most of the day putting in a comma and the rest of                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061039 -        the day taking it out. - Oscar Wilde                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
061041 -         ..
061042 -    9.  Grammar English's Famous Rule of Punctuation: Never use only                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061043 -        one comma between a subject and its verb. "Believing completely                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061044 -        and positively in oneself is essential for success." [Although                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061045 -        readers might pause after the word "oneself," there is no                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061046 -        reason to put a comma there.]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061048 -         ..
061049 -   10.  Typographical Reasons: Between a city and a state [Hartford,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061050 -        Connecticut], a date and the year [June 15, 1997], a name and                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061051 -        a title when the title comes after the name [Bob Downey,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061052 -        Professor of English], in long numbers [5,456,783 and                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
061053 -        $14,682], etc. Although you will often see a comma between a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061054 -        name and suffix - Bob Downey, Jr., Richard Harrison, III -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061055 -        this comma is no longer regarded as necessary by most copy                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061056 -        editors, and some individuals - such as Martin Luther King Jr.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061057 -        - never used a comma there at all.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
061059 -         ..
061060 -        Note that we use a comma or a set of commas to make the year                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061061 -        parenthetical when the date of the month is included:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
061062 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061063 -            July 4, 1776, is regarded as the birth date of American                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061064 -            liberty.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061066 -         ..
061067 -        Without the date itself, however, the comma disappears:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061068 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061069 -            July 1776 was one of the most eventful months in our                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061070 -            history.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061072 -         ..
061073 -        In international or military format, no commas are used:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061074 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061075 -            The Declaration of Independence was signed on 4 July 1776.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061077 -         ..
061078 -   11.  As you can see, there are many reasons for using commas, and                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061079 -        we haven't listed them all. Yet the biggest problem that most                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061080 -        students have with commas is their overuse. Some essays look                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061081 -        as though the student loaded a shotgun with commas and blasted                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061082 -        away. Remember, too, that a pause in reading is not always a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061083 -        reliable reason to use a comma. Try not to use a comma unless                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061084 -        you can apply a specific rule from this page to do so.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
061085 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061086 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061088 -  ..
061089 - Clauses occur in many varieties separated by commas, explained at...                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061090 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061091 -       http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/clauses.htm                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
061093 -  ..
061094 - Independent Clause is explained...                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061095 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061096 -    A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061097 -    verb.  A clause can be usefully distinguished from a phrase, which                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061098 -    is a group of related words that does not contain a subject-verb                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061099 -    relationship, such as "in the morning" or "running down the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061100 -    street" or "having grown used to this harassment." A review of the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061101 -    different kinds of phrases might be helpful.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061103 -  ..
061104 - Words We Use to Talk about Clauses                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061105 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061106 -    Learning the various terms used to define and classify clauses can                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061107 -    be a vocabulary lesson in itself. This digital handout categorizes                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061108 -    clauses into independent and dependent clauses. This simply means                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061109 -    that some clauses can stand by themselves, as separate sentences,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061110 -    and some can't. Another term for dependent clause is subordinate                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061111 -    clause: this means that the clause is subordinate to another                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061112 -    element (the independent clause) and depends on that other element                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061113 -    for its meaning. The subordinate clause is created by a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
061114 -    subordinating conjunction or dependent word.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061116 -     ..
061117 -    An independent clause, "She is older than her brother" (which could                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061118 -    be its own sentence), can be turned into a dependent or subordinate                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061119 -    clause when the same group of words begins with a dependent word                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061120 -    (or a subordinating conjunction in this case): "Because she is                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061121 -    older than her brother, she tells him what to do."                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061123 -     ..
061124 -    Clauses are also classified as restrictive and nonrestrictive                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061125 -    clauses. (The words essential and nonessential are sometimes used                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061126 -    and mean the same thing as restrictive and nonrestrictive,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
061127 -    respectively. British grammarians will make this same distinction                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061128 -    by referring to clauses with the terms defining and non-defining.)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061129 -    A nonrestrictive clause is not essential to the meaning of the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061130 -    sentence; it can be removed from the sentence without changing its                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061131 -    basic meaning. Nonrestrictive clauses are often set apart from the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061132 -    rest of the sentence by a comma or a pair of commas (if it's in                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061133 -    the middle of a sentence).                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
061134 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061135 -        Professor Villa, who used to be a secretary for the President,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061136 -        can type 132 words a minute.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061138 -     ..
061139 -    Review the Notorious Confusables section on the difference between                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061140 -    That and Which for additional clarification on the distinction                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061141 -    between restrictive and nonrestrictive.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
061143 -     ..
061144 -    Relative clauses are dependent clauses introduced by a Relative                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061145 -    Pronoun (that, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061146 -    whose, and of which). Relative clauses can be either restrictive                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061147 -    or nonrestrictive. Review the section on Comma Usage for                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
061148 -    additional help in determining whether relative clauses are                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061149 -    restrictive or nonrestrictive (parenthetical or not) and whether                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061150 -    commas should be used to set them off from the rest of the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
061151 -    sentence. In a relative clause, the relative pronoun is the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061152 -    subject of the verb (remember that all clauses contain a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
061153 -    subject-verb relationship) and refers to (relates to) something                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061154 -    preceding the clause.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
061155 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061156 -        Giuseppe said that the plantar wart, which had been bothering                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061157 -        him for years, had to be removed.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
061158 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061159 -    (In this sentence, the clause in this color is a restrictive                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061160 -    [essential] clause [a noun clause - see below] and will not be set                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
061161 -    off by a comma; the underlined relative clause [modifying "wart"]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061162 -    is nonrestrictive [nonessential - it can be removed from the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061163 -    sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence] and is set                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061164 -    off by commas.)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061166 -     ..
061167 -    Some relative clauses will refer to more than a single word in the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061168 -    preceding text; they can modify an entire clause or even a series                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061169 -    of clauses.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061170 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061171 -        Charlie didn't get the job in administration, which really                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061172 -        surprised his friends.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
061174 -         ..
061175 -        Charlie didn't get the job in administration, and he didn't                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061176 -        even apply for the Dean's position, which really surprised his                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061177 -        friends.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061179 -     ..
061180 -    A relative clause that refers to or modifies entire clauses in                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061181 -    this manner is called a sentential clause. Sometimes the "which"                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061182 -    of a sentential clause will get tucked into the clause as the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061183 -    determiner of a noun:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
061184 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061185 -        Charlie might very well take a job as headmaster, in which case                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061186 -        the school might as well close down.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
061188 -     ..
061189 -    Elliptical Clauses: see below.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061191 -     ..
061192 -    Finally, everybody's favorite clause is the Santa Clause, which                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061193 -    needs no further definition                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061194 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061196 -  ..
061197 - Independent Clauses                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061198 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061199 -    Independent Clauses could stand by themselves as discrete                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
061200 -    sentences, except that when they do stand by themselves, separated                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061201 -    from other clauses, they're normally referred to simply as                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
061202 -    sentences, not clauses. The ability to recognize a clause and to                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061203 -    know when a clause is capable of acting as an independent unit is                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061204 -    essential to correct writing and is especially helpful in avoiding                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061205 -    sentence fragments and run-on sentences..                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
061207 -     ..
061208 -    Needless to say, it is important to learn how to combine                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
061209 -    independent clauses into larger units of thought. In the following                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061210 -    sentence, for example,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
061211 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061212 -        Bob didn't mean to do it, but he did it anyway.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061213 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061214 -    ...we have two independent clauses - "Bob didn't mean to do it" and                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061215 -    "he did it anyway" - connected by a comma and a coordinating                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061216 -    conjunction ("but"). If the word "but" is missing from this                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061217 -    sentence, the sentence would be called a comma splice: two                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
061218 -    independent clauses would be incorrectly connected, smooshed                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061219 -    together, with only a comma between them. Furthermore, a long                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061220 -    series of clauses of similar structure and length begins to feel                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061221 -    monotonous, leading to what is called "Dick and Jane" or primer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061222 -    language (after the kind of prose that we find in first grade                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061223 -    textbooks or "primers"). (See the section on Avoiding Primer                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061224 -    Language for advice and exercises on combining sentences.) It would                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061225 -    also be helpful at this time to review the section on Punctuation                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061226 -    Between Two Independent Clauses.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061228 -     ..
061229 -    Clauses are combined in three different ways: coordination,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061230 -    subordination, and by means of a semicolon. Coordination involves                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061231 -    joining independent clauses with one of the coordinating                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
061232 -    conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and sometimes* so.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061233 -    Clauses thus connected are usually nicely balanced in length and                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061234 -    import.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
061235 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061236 -        Ramonita thought about joining the church choir, but she never                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061237 -        talked to her friends about it.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061239 -  ..
061240 - Subordination                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061241 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061242 -    Subordination involves turning one of the clauses into a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
061243 -    subordinate element (one that cannot stand on its own) through the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061244 -    use of a Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061245 -    word) or a Relative Pronoun. When the clause begins with a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
061246 -    subordinating word, it is no longer an independent clause; it is                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061247 -    called a dependent or subordinate clause because it depends on                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061248 -    something else (the independent clause) for its meaning. There are                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061249 -    other ways of combining ideas - by turning independent clauses into                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061250 -    various kinds of modifying phrases. Again, see the section on                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061251 -    Avoiding Primer Language.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
061252 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061253 -        Although Ramonita often thought about joining the choir, she                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061254 -        never talked to her friends about it.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
061256 -         ..
061257 -        Ramonita never talked to her friends about joining the choir,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061258 -        because she was afraid they would make fun of her.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
061260 -         ..
061261 -        Yasmin is Ramonita's sister. Yasmin told Ramonita to join the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061262 -        choir no matter what her friends said.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
061264 -         ..
061265 -        Joining these with the use of a relative clause:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
061267 -         ..
061268 -        Yasmin, [who is] Ramonita's sister, told Ramonita to join the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061269 -        choir. . . .                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061271 -  ..
061272 - Semicolons...                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061273 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061274 -    Semicolons can connect two independent clauses with or without the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061275 -    help of a conjunctive adverb (transitional expression).  Semicolons                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061276 -    should be used sparingly and only when the two independent clauses                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061277 -    involved are closely related and nicely balanced in terms of length                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061278 -    and import.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061279 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061280 -        Ramonita has such a beautiful voice; many couples have asked                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061281 -        her to sing at their wedding.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061283 -         ..
061284 -        Ramonita's voice has a clear, angelic quality; furthermore, she                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061285 -        clearly enjoys using it.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061287 -     ..
061288 -    (Click on the words semicolons and conjunctive adverb above for                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061289 -    further help with their use.)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061291 -  ..
061292 - Dependent Cluase                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061293 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061294 -    Dependent Clauses cannot stand by themselves and make good sense.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061295 -    They must be combined with an independent clause so that they                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061296 -    become part of a sentence that can stand by itself. (Review the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061297 -    section on Commas Usage for advice and plenty of exercises on the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061298 -    punctuation requirements when dependent and independent clauses are                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061299 -    combined.) Unlike independent clauses, which simply are what they                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061300 -    are, dependent clauses are said to perform various functions within                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061301 -    a sentence. They act either in the capacity of some kind of noun or                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061302 -    as some kind of modifier. There are three basic kinds of dependent                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061303 -    clauses, categorized according to their function in the sentence.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061304 -    Remember that a dependent clause always contains a subject and a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061305 -    verb, but it cannot stand by itself.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
061306 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061307 -        Adverb clauses provide information about what is going on in                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061308 -        the main (independent) clause: where, when, or why. "When the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061309 -        movie is over, we'll go downtown." or "John wanted to write a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061310 -        book because he had so much to say about the subject."                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
061312 -         ..
061313 -        Adjective clauses work like multi-word adjectives.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
061314 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061315 -            "My brother, who is an engineer, figured it out for me." or                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061316 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061317 -            "The bridge that collapsed in the winter storm will cost                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061318 -            millions to replace."                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061319 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061321 -         ..
061322 -        A special kind of adjective clause begins with a relative                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061323 -        adverb (where, when, and why) but nonetheless functions as                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061324 -        adjectivally.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061326 -         ..
061327 -        Noun clauses can do anything that nouns can do.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061328 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061329 -            "What he knows [subject] is no concern of mine." or                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061331 -             ..
061332 -            "Do you know what he knows [object]?" or                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061334 -             ..
061335 -            "What can you tell me about what he has done this year                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061336 -            [object of the preposition "about"]?"                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061338 -             ..
061339 -            What they did with the treasure remains a mystery.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
061341 -             ..
061342 -            Whatever you want for dessert is fine with me.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
061344 -             ..
061345 -            That you should feel this way about her came as a great                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061346 -            suprise to me.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
061348 -             ..
061349 -            Juan finally revealed what he had done with the money.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061351 -             ..
061352 -            Her husband spent whatever she had saved over the years.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061354 -             ..
061355 -            I don't know what I should do next.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061357 -             ..
061358 -            In fact, he wrote a book about what he had done over the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061359 -            years.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061361 -             ..
061362 -            We are interested in what he does for a living.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
061364 -             ..
061365 -            The trouble was that they had never been there before.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061367 -             ..
061368 -            The biggest disappointment of last season was that the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061369 -            women's team didn't make it to the final four.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
061371 -             ..
061372 -            My brother, who now teaches math in a small college, never                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061373 -            liked math in high school.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061375 -             ..
061376 -            The dealership that sold more cars ended up actually losing                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061377 -            money.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061379 -             ..
061380 -            The Federated Bank, which was founded nearly two centuries                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061381 -            ago, folded during the state's economic crisis.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
061383 -             ..
061384 -            The team had fallen behind by ten points before they were                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061385 -            able to figure out the opponent's defense.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061387 -             ..
061388 -            Since he started working nights, he doesn't see much of                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
061389 -            his kids.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061391 -             ..
061392 -            While Josie sat inside watching television, Gladys shoveled                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061393 -            the driveway                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
061395 -  ..
061396 - Combinations of Clauses                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
061397 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061398 -    Review the section on Sentence Variety for help in understanding                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061399 -    the variety of sentence patterns. It is difficult to know if you're                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061400 -    using different patterns unless you keep in mind the way that                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
061401 -    clauses are combined in larger sentence-units of thought.  Pay                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061402 -    special attention to the variety of sentence types: simple,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061403 -    compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. These are                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061404 -    defined by their essential ingredients, the clauses that make them                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061405 -    up. There is also a quiz at the end of that section that will test                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061406 -    your ability to distinguish among the kinds of clauses that make up                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061407 -    a sentence.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061409 -  ..
061410 - Elliptical Clauses                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
061411 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061412 -    Elliptical Clauses are grammatically incomplete in the sense that                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061413 -    they are missing either the relative pronoun (dependent word) that                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061414 -    normally introduces such a clause or something from the predicate                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061415 -    in the second part of a comparison. The missing parts of the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061416 -    elliptical clause can be guessed from the context and most readers                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
061417 -    are not aware that anything is missing. In fact, elliptical clauses                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061418 -    are regarded as both useful and correct, even in formal prose,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061419 -    because they are often elegant, efficient means of expression. (The                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061420 -    omitted words are noted in brackets below).                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
061421 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061422 -        Coach Espinoza knew [that] this team would be the best [that]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
061423 -        she had coached in recent years.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
061425 -         ..
061426 -        Though [they were] sometimes nervous on the court, her recruits                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061427 -        proved to be hard workers.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
061429 -         ..
061430 -        Sometimes the veterans knew the recruits could play better than                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
061431 -        they [could play].                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
061432 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061433 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061434 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061435 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061436 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061437 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061438 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
061439 -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
0615 -