Energy
Original Source

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 Energy and Work
Doctor James Schombert
Lecture #1, March 29, 2004
Physics Department
University of Oregon

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Energy is the capacity for doing work. Work is measure of energy transfer that occurs when an object is moved over a distance by an external force at least part of which is applied in the direction of the displacement.


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If the force is constant, work may be computed by multiplying the length of the path by the component of the force acting along the path. Work done on a body is accomplished not only by a displacement of the body as a whole from one place to another but also, for example, by compressing a gas, by rotating a shaft, and even by causing invisible motions of the particles within a body by an external magnetic force.

Work done on a body is equal to the increase in the energy of the body, for work transfers energy to the body. If, however, the applied force is opposite to the motion of the object, the work is considered to be negative, implying that energy is taken from the object. The units in which work is expressed are the same as those for energy, for example, in the meter-kilogram-second system, joule (newton-meter); in the centimeter-gram-second system, erg (dyne-centimeter); and in the English system, foot-pound.
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Energy may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical, chemical, nuclear, or other various forms. There are, moreover, heat and work; i.e., energy in the process of transfer from one body to another. After it has been transferred, energy is always designated according to its nature. Hence, heat transferred may become thermal energy, while work done may manifest itself in the form of mechanical energy.
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All forms of energy are associated with motion. For example, any given body has kinetic energy if it is in motion. A tensioned device such as a bow or spring, though at rest, has the potential for creating motion; it contains potential energy because of its configuration. Similarly, nuclear energy is potential energy because it results from the configuration of subatomic particles in the nucleus of an atom.
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Potential Energy :

Potential energy is stored energy that depends upon the relative position of various parts of a system. A spring has more potential energy when it is compressed or stretched. A steel ball has more potential energy raised above the ground than it has after falling to the Earth. In the raised position it is capable of doing more work. Potential energy is a property of a system and not of an individual body or particle; the system composed of the Earth and the raised ball, for example, has more potential energy as the two are farther separated.
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Potential energy arises in systems with parts that exert forces on each other of a magnitude dependent on the configuration, or relative position, of the parts. In the case of the Earth-ball system, the force of gravity between the two depends only on the distance separating them. The work done in separating them farther, or in raising the ball, transfers additional energy to the system, where it is stored as gravitational potential energy.
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Potential energy also includes other forms. The energy stored between the plates of a charged capacitor is electrical potential energy. What is commonly known as chemical energy, the capacity of a substance to do work or to evolve heat by undergoing a change of composition, may be regarded as potential energy resulting from the mutual forces among its molecules and atoms. Nuclear energy is also a form of potential energy.
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The potential energy of a system of particles depends only on their initial and final configurations; it is independent of the path the particles travel. In the case of the steel ball and the earth, if the initial position of the ball is ground level and the final position is ten feet above the ground, the potential energy is the same, no matter how or by what route the ball was raised. The value of potential energy is arbitrary and relative to the choice of reference point. In the case given above, the system would have twice as much potential energy if the initial position were the bottom of a ten-foot-deep hole.
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Gravitational potential energy near the Earth's surface may be computed by multiplying the weight of an object by its distance above the reference point. In bound systems, such as atoms, in which electrons are held by the electric force of attraction to nuclei, the zero reference for potential energy is a distance from the nucleus so great that the electric force is not detectable. In this case, bound electrons have negative potential energy, and those just free of the nucleus and at rest have zero potential energy.
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Kinetic Energy :

Potential energy may be converted into energy of motion, called kinetic energy, and in turn to other forms such as electrical energy. Thus, water behind a dam flows to lower levels through turbines that turn electric generators, producing electric energy plus some unusable heat energy resulting from turbulence and friction.

Historically, potential energy was included with kinetic energy as a form of mechanical energy so that the total energy in gravitational systems could be calculated as a constant.
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Excerpt from the Encyclopedia Britannica without permission.